Skip to main content
Middle East Current Psychiatry
Download PDF

Prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities among adult out-patients living with HIV/AIDS in a tertiary care center, North-Central Nigeria: a cross-sectional study

Middle East Current Psychiatry volume 31, Article number: 71 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Psychiatric disorders had been reported with higher prevalence among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), [PLWHA] than the general population and its presence could confer poorer prognosis on infected individuals. However, there is limited research on the above subject matter in the North-Central part of Nigeria. Thus, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of common psychiatric disorders (CPD) among adult out-patients PLWHA at the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital (UITH), Ilorin, North-Central Nigeria.

Methods

It was a hospital-based descriptive cross-sectional study, conducted among 363 respondents attending the UITH Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) clinic between March and May 2019. Interviewer-administered questionnaires were used to collect data. Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) was used to assess the prevalence of CPD among respondents. Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 21 and p value of < 0.05 was taken as statistically significant.

Results

The prevalence of depression was 24.5%, anxiety disorder (AD) was 16.8% and alcohol use disorder (AUD) was 0.6%. Respondents from the extended family type were more depressed 70.4% and about half 43.3% of the nuclear family had AD while a 1.6% prevalence of AUD was found among the nuclear family. The association was statistically significant with a p value of 0.001.

Conclusion

CPD exist among PLWHA with increasing prevalence therefore screening for these disorders should be encouraged during routine management of PLWHA to improve their psychological well-being.

Introduction

There have been several studies that indicate a higher prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), [PLWHA], in comparison to the general population with other chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, pulmonary tuberculosis, and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) [1, 2]. PLWHA have been reported to consistently have a higher rate of psychiatric comorbidities than those individuals who are uninfected with HIV infection [1, 2]. Studies within and outside Nigeria have shown that among non-communicable diseases, psychiatric illnesses like common psychiatric disorders (CPD) are the most prevalent, and most important cause of disability in low-income countries accounting for 13% of the global burden of disease [3,4,5]. CPD is a term used to describe a group of psychiatric disorders that frequently occur in primary care patients [6, 7]. These disorders have been known to increase HIV disease progression, increase the risk of transmission, cause poor medication adherence, subsequently impair immune function, reduce quality of life and contribute significantly to premature deaths among PLWHA [7,8,9].

In Nigeria, an estimated 3.4% of the total population is living with HIV/AIDS and globally about 36.7 million people are infected and living with HIV/AIDS [10, 11]. HIV infection is a chronic non-curable communicable disease that exposes infected individuals to mental stress and psychological issues like fear, anxiety, suicidal thoughts and ideation, substance misuse and depression [8, 9, 12]. It has been reported to have psychopathological effects on infected individuals and found to increase morbidity and mortality among PLWHA with comorbid psychiatric disorders [13]. With the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1990, which tends to increase life expectancy among PLWHA, mental health issues have come to the fore as a critical problem due to its chronicity [14]. Worldwide, psychiatric disorders are of serious and growing public health concern, constituting the brunt of the non-fatal burden of disease [8]. The increasing prevalence of psychiatric disorders comorbid with HIV/AIDS infection among PLWHA is alarming and needs an aggressive response [15, 16] In Nigeria, 56.7% prevalence was reported among PLWHA, likewise, 63% was found in Yaoundé Cameron, 57% of pregnant and HIV-infected women in Tanzania, and 46.4% in the Oromia region of Ethiopia [17,18,19,20]. Depression in PLWHA has been noticed to be associated with increased HIV risk behaviours and poor treatment outcomes, and failure to address and recognize this could endanger not only the affected individuals but the community at large [8, 21].

CPD is one of the comorbidities that are often overlooked and undermined in treating patients with HIV/AIDS and such health problems are important to be addressed because they can act synergistically to the detriment of the efforts to curb HIV infection [8, 22]. There is a dire need to explore further how common are the CPD among PLWHA in Nigeria. This exploration aims to enhance and provide better healthcare services with a good quality of life [9]. Besides, this study also attempts to bridge the gap by adding to the limited body of knowledge on the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among PLWHA in the North-Central part of Nigeria.

Materials and methods

The study was conducted at the HAART clinic of the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital (UITH), Ilorin. Ilorin is the capital of Kwara State located in the North-Central geopolitical zone. The majority of Ilorin inhabitants practiced Islam, and they are mainly Yorubas, but other ethnic groups also constitute a significant proportion of the population. The study was a hospital-based descriptive cross-sectional study. The participants were consented to adult HIV-positive out-patients aged 18 years and above and had been on antiretroviral for at least 6 months. Patients diagnosed with HIV less than 6 months from the commencement of the study, patients with major chronic medical illnesses (pulmonary tuberculosis, diabetes, systemic hypertension, and chronic kidney disease), patients who were on treatment for mental illness before the diagnosis of HIV and patients who were too sick to participate in the study were all excluded from the study.

The required sample size (n) was obtained using Leslie Kish’s formula [23] n = Z2pq/d2. n = desired sample size (when population > 10,000), z = standard normal deviation, set at 1.96 which corresponds to a 95% confidence level. p = proportion of target population based on previous studies, 38.3% prevalence reported in the previous similar study was used [15]. Thus, P = 0.383, q = 1–0.383 = 0.617, d = Degree of accuracy desired, set at 5% (0.05).

Therefore, \(\frac{n=1.9{6}^{2} \times 0.383 \times \left(0.617\right)=363.125 \approx 363}{0.05 \times 0.05}\)as the minimum sample size.

However, the study population was less than 10,000 (7084 was the average number of adult HIV-positive patients seen annually in the HAART clinic), and the sample size was adjusted using the formula: nf = n/1 +(n/N) [23]. nf = the desired sample size when the population is less than 10,000, n = estimated sample size = 363, N = the estimated population size = 7084, nf = 363/1 + (363/7084) = 345.306 \(\approx\) 345. However, to take care of non-respondent or missing data; a 95% response rate was assumed. Hence, the final sample size was adjusted using the formula: ns = n/r 23. ns = adjusted sample size of the response rate, n = calculated sample size = 345, r = response ratio = 0.95. ns = 345/0.95 = 363.16. Thus, an approximate sample size of 363 was recruited for the study using a systematic random sampling technique. The participants’ informed consent was obtained and confidentially was maintained. The data collection period was 3 months (March to May 2019). HAART clinics were run four times a week and the average daily attendance of adult out-patients per clinic was about 30, making 120 patients in a week and this gave a sample frame of 1440 over 12 weeks. The number of participants interviewed daily was approximately 8, the sample size/total number of clinic days (363/48), and the sampling interval was approximately 4 (1440/363). On each clinic day, the participants’ folder was assigned a number from 01 to 30 and the first subject was selected by simple balloting, thereafter every 4th consenting participant was chosen. The selected participants’ folders were labeled and their hospital numbers were written in the research register to avoid the pitfall of double sampling. In the circumstances where the ballot picked already interviewed subject, or when the patient declined consent, the next consenting participant was selected. This procedure was repeated every clinic day until the total sample size was obtained.

A pretested interviewer-administered semi-structured questionnaire was used to obtain information on socio-demographic data while a structured questionnaire, Mini International Neuropsychiatry Interview (MINI), was used to obtain information on psychiatric comorbidities among respondents. MINI Questionnaire was designed as a brief structured clinician-administered diagnostic interview, widely used to assess the presence of psychiatric disorders based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) [24, 25]. Studies have shown that it has acceptably high validation and reliability scores [25, 26]. It has been used in some studies in Nigeria and found to be a reliable screening tool in assessing psychiatric disorders among PLWHA in primary care settings [15, 27, 28]. It is divided into modules identified by letters; “As” are for Depression, “Bs” are for anxiety disorder (AD) and “Ds” are for alcohol use disorder (AUD). At the beginning of each module, the screening question(s) correspond to the main criteria of the disorder and at the end, diagnostic box(es) permit(s) the clinician to indicate whether the diagnostic criteria are met or not. During the interview, the subjects will respond “yes” or “no” to each question being asked by the interviewer [24].

The data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science-21 (SPSS 21) software package. Frequency distribution tables and charts were used to describe socio-demographic characteristics. Means and standard deviations were used for continuous variables and categorical variables were expressed in absolute counts and simple percentages. The chi-square test was used to assess the level of significance of association between categorical variables. A p value of 0.05 or less was considered statistically significant at a confidence interval of 95%. Ethical approval to conduct the study was received from the Ethical Review Committee of the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin (approval number: UITH/CAT/189/19B/796).

Results

Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. A total of 363 participants were enrolled in the study. The age group 31–40 years had the highest representative with 128 (35.3%) while the mean age of the respondents was 44.87 ± 10.05. The majority of the participants were female 262 (72.2%) with a female-to-male ratio of 2.1:1. Slightly more than half of the respondents 196 (54.0%) practiced Islam and larger percentages 300 (82.6%) were Yorubas. 244 (67.2%) were married and 3.0% had no formal education. About half of the respondents were self-employed 167 (46.0%) and more than two-thirds 283 (78.0%) earned below 18,000 nairas monthly. Respondents with household members of six and below 262 (72.2%) were the majority, while about two-thirds 256 (70.5%) of them practiced monogamous family type. Table 2 shows the association between CPD (depression, AD, and AUD) and some socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. Respondents from the extended family type were more depressed 70.4%, about half 43.3% of the nuclear family type had AD while AUD was found in the nuclear family setting with a prevalence of 1.6%. The association was statistically significant with a p value of 0.001. Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities among the respondents using the MINI assessment tool, the prevalence of depression was 24.5%, AD was 16.8% and that of AUD was 0.6%.

Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, N = 363
Full size table
Table 2 Relationship between CPD and socio-demographic variables
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Prevalence of depression among the respondents 24.5%

Full size image
Fig. 2
figure 2

Prevalence of anxiety disorder among respondents 16.8%

Full size image
Fig. 3
figure 3

The pie chart shows the prevalence of AUD among the respondents to be 0.6%

Full size image

Discussion

This study showed that most respondents were within their reproductive age groups and they had the highest proportion of 35.3% while the lowest proportion 6.6% was found among elderly patients (> 60 years). The mean age was 44.87 ± 10.05 years. The preponderance of young adults in this study is consistent with the existing literature which reported that HIV infection is more prevalent among the reproductive age groups, and this was attributed to high risky behaviours within the group [29,30,31]. There were more female respondents 262 (72.2%) than males 101 (27.8%) and this was in tandem with previous studies from Asia and Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) [3, 7, 32, 33]. This could be because women are more prone to being infected with HIV than their male counterparts [34]. The majority of the respondents (67.2%) were married and the most prevalent family type was a monogamous family setting 256 (70.5%).

In this study, the prevalence of depression among respondents was 24.5% using the MINI questionnaire. This is comparable to what was reported by Egbe and colleagues in Abuja, where 28.2% of PLWHA had depression and Ofovwe et al. in the University of Benin Teaching Hospital with a 27.3% prevalence [9, 35]. However, it was lower than the prevalence reported by Adeoti et al. (39.6%) in Ado-Ekiti [32]. Marwick et al. in Tanzania and Balasubramaniam et al. in India also reported lower prevalences of 15.5% and 14.0% respectively [36, 37]. The reasons for the disparity may probably be related to the difference in the sample population and research tools used in their various studies. For instance, the study done in Abuja was a cross-sectional descriptive study involving three HAART clinics across the city with a large sample population of 1187, and the WHO World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview questionnaire was used to diagnose depression [35]. Likewise, Ofovwe et al. in Benin City with a sample population of 113, diagnosed depression by using Symptoms Checklist-90 (SCL-90) [9]. The study by Adeoti et al. was conducted among 424 adults with PLWHA using Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scales (HADS) to diagnose depression [32]. In Tanzania, depression was diagnosed among 220 adults PLWHA using the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised (CIS-R) questionnaire while in the Indian study, the participants were 208 and the Beck Depression Inventory Ia (BDI-Ia) was used to diagnose depression [36, 38]. Other reasons for the disparity in prevalence may be due to the effect of high levels of stigmatization, social isolation, and rejection towards PLWHA in the various study locations. In addition, the psychological and or emotional disturbance of living with an incurable disease, inadequate family support, unemployment, and the incapacitation that could occur in the lives of the respondents may have contributed to the difference in the prevalence of depression in these studies [8, 9, 39, 40]. This suggests that depression in adults with HIV/AIDS is a significant comorbidity. The high prevalence of depression among respondents in this study emphasizes the importance of routine screening for CPD and a holistic care approach by the physicians managing PLWHA.

The prevalence of AD in this study was 16.8% using the MINI questionnaire. This is comparable to the finding by Ofovwe et al. in Benin City, South-South Nigeria where a prevalence of 15.9% was reported [9]. It was lower compared to the findings from the studies conducted by Olagunju et al. in Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH) and Adeoti et al. in Ado-Ekiti with 21.7% and 32.6% respectively [32, 41]. In Ethiopia, a higher prevalence of 32.4% was reported by Tesfaw and colleagues while a lower prevalence of 1.4% was reported in India by Balasubramaniam et al. among similar respondents [12, 37]. These variations could be attributed to the differences in the sensitivity of research screening tools used for their studies, the population of respondents, the methodology employed, and differences in geographical locations. Olagunju et al. in LUTH assessed AD among 300 respondents in a descriptive cross-sectional study with the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN) tool while Adeoti et al. used HADS to diagnose AD among 424 respondents [32, 41]. In Ethiopia, Tesfaw and colleagues also used HADS to diagnose AD among a slightly higher number of respondents (417) than in the index study [12]. Balasubramaniam et al. in India carried out their study among a larger population of 11,476 over two consecutive years and AD was assessed by the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) criteria [37]. The finding from this study further revealed the relative presence of AD among PLWHA; therefore, healthcare providers must be aware of this condition and be ready to screen PLWHA to provide holistic care to affected individuals. This will further improve the overall health of the patients and by extension, the nation at large.

AUD prevalence in this study was 0.6% using the MINI screening tool. This lower prevalence could be because the Ilorin metropolis where the study was conducted is predominantly dominated by Muslim faithful whose faith does not permit the consumption of alcohol. Other possibilities include the under-reporting of alcohol use by the participants and the dominance of the female gender among the respondents. This finding is in contrast with the previous research reports from the same geo-political zone (North Central zone, Nigeria) where the higher prevalence of 7.8% and 12% were separately reported by Egbe et al. and Farley et al. respectively [35, 42]. Likewise, Gebre and colleagues in West Ethiopia found an 18.4% prevalence of AUD [43]. In Southern Brazil, da Silva et al. also found a 28.6% prevalence of AUD [44]. The disparity may be related to the religious backgrounds of the respondents, economic status, socio-cultural activities, sensitivity of the screening tools, methodology employed, and the study population. For instance, the Abuja study by Egbe et al. was conducted in a multicenter with 1187 respondents of different religious backgrounds and socio-cultural beliefs, and the WHO Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview questionnaire was used to diagnose AUD [35]. On the other hand, Farley and colleagues conducted their study at the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, and the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) tool was used [42]. Other reasons for the differences in prevalence which is in consonance with previously documented wide variations across populations may be due to differences in literacy, unawareness of the effects of alcohol misuse, and occupational status of the population concerned [44].

A higher prevalence of depression was found among those with extended family structure (70.4%) than the nuclear family type with a proportion of 55.1%. Generally, there is a dearth of published literature on the association between depression and extended family structure among PLWHA. However, there exist research studies on the relationship between family support and depression among PLWHA. The presence of a higher prevalence of depression among the extended family type in this study was contrary to the existing studies [8, 45]. The reasons for the higher prevalence of depression among the extended family type in this study could be because too many responsibilities exist within the extended family type, coupled with the absence of a tangible family member who could shoulder such tasks. This might hinder the adequacy of family/social support expected for an HIV-infected family member. In addition, the stigmatization and discrimination associated with HIV disease might prevent infected individuals from disclosing his/her status to family members and this could further worsen the HIV/AIDS disease condition with comorbid psychological stress.

AD was more prevalent (43.3%) among respondents with a nuclear type of family as compared to the extended family structure and the finding was in tandem with the previous study [15, 38]. The reasons for the similarity could be due to urban settings where the studies were carried out in which the majority of inhabitants were educated and engaged in monogamous types of marriage.

The respondents who had AUD (1.6%) were solely found among the nuclear type of family structure with none among extended family, this is in disparity with the previous studies that reported a higher prevalence of AUD among similar respondents. Egbe et al. in Abuja Nigeria reported a 7.8% prevalence of AUD while 14.2% was reported by Bultum et al. in the Oromiya region of Ethiopia [35, 46]. Also, da Silva and colleagues in Southern Brazil reported a 28.6% prevalence rate [44]. The possible explanation for the low prevalence of AUD in this study could be due to socio-economic, and cultural background and monogamous type of marriage among the respondents. Likewise, the number of respondents recruited for each of the studies, the sensitivity of the screening tools, and the methodology employed in the various studies could account for the higher prevalence reported.

Conclusion

HIV infection is a non-curable debilitating disease that has been turned into a chronic manageable condition with the advent of HAART and may predispose infected individuals to develop CPD. This study observed the prevalence of depression, AD, and AUD among adult out-patients PLWHA at UITH, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria, using the MINI questionnaire to be 24.5%, 16.8%, and 0.6% respectively. The findings could guide caregivers, especially physicians in screening for these disorders during the routine clinic visit of PLWHA.

Limitations of the study

This study was a hospital-based cross-sectional descriptive study, and the results may not be generalized for the entire population of PLWHA in Ilorin, Kwara State. The various statistically significant observations between the variables tested in this study were not necessarily causal. The research instruments used for assessing the presence of CPD were based on self-report and observations which are prone to self-report bias.

Recommendations

For policy-makers

Stakeholders and other policymakers should enact policies that would incorporate and strengthen mental health care services into HIV management at various levels of care with adequate training and re-training of the involved health care providers. The Instruments (MINI) used to screen for CPDs could be included in the patient’s assessment form to make early diagnosis and prompt provision of holistic and comprehensive care to PLWHA with comorbid psychiatric disorders.

For clinicians

Primary care physicians, who offer holistic, coordinated, and comprehensive health care to all patients including PLWHA should be engaged in the proper evaluation, health education, and counseling of HIV/AIDS clients during clinic visits. Routine screening for CPD should be done for all patients with HIV infection to identify those at risk. Referral for further evaluation and management should be made as required.

Availability of data and materials

All the datasets used and analysed during this current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

AD:

Anxiety disorder

AUD:

Alcohol use disorder

AUDIT:

Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test

BDI-Ia:

Beck Depression Inventory Ia

CIS-R:

Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised

CPD:

Common psychiatric disorders

DSM-IV:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV

HAART:

Highly active antiretroviral therapy

HADS:

Hospital Anxiety Depression Scales

HIV/AIDS:

Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

ICD-10:

International Classification of Diseases 10

LUTH:

Lagos University Teaching Hospital

MINI:

Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview

PLWHA:

People Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

SCAN:

Schedule Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry

SCL-90:

Symptoms Checklists-90

STDs:

Sexually transmitted diseases

UITH:

University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital

References

  1. Chikezie UE, Otakpor AN, Kuteyi OB, James BO (2013) Depression among people living with human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Benin City, Nigeria : A comparative study. Niger J Clin Pract 16(2):16–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Mall S, Sorsdahl K, Swartz L, Joska J (2012) “ I understand just a little …” Perspectives of HIV / AIDS service providers in South Africa of providing mental health care for people living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care 24(2):319–323

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Albert UK, Effiong JH (2015) Mental health in primary care : co-morbid anxiety and depression in Akwa Ibom State. Nigeria Int Neuropsychiatr Dis J 4(3):102–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Siyan Y, Pheak C, Samedy S, Kouland T, Carinne B, Tuot S (2015) AIDS-related stigma and mental disorders among people living with HIV : a cross-sectional study in Cambodia. PLoS ONE 10(3):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  5. Kodali PB (2018) Mental health needs of people living with HIV/AIDS : a thematic overview. MOJ Public Heal 7(1):2–6

    Google Scholar 

  6. Chibanda D, Benjamin L, Weiss HA, Abas M (2014) Mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in people living with HIV/AIDS in low- and middle-income countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 67(Suppl. 1):S54-67

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Chibanda D, Cowan F, Gibson L, Weiss HA, Lund C (2016) Prevalence and correlates of probable common mental disorders in a population with high prevalence of HIV in Zimbabwe. BMC Psychiatry 16(55):2–9

    Google Scholar 

  8. Amiya RM, Poudel KC, Poudel-tandukar K, Pandey BD, Jimba M (2014) Perceived family support, depression, and suicidal ideation among people living with HIV/AIDS : a cross- sectional study in the Kathmandu Valley. Nepal PLoS One 9(3):1–10

    Google Scholar 

  9. Ofovwe CE, Ofovwe C (2013) Psychological disorders among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in Southern Nigeria. Afr J Reprod Health 17(4):177–182

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. United Nations on Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (UNAIDS) (2019) HIV and AIDS in Nigeria. 1–17. Available at www.avert.org. Accessed 17th March 2019

  11. Tharakan SM (2019) Global Trends in HIV / AIDS. In Focus; 1018 (Version 5):1-2. Available at; https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/IF11018.pdf. Accessed 10 Dec 2019

  12. Tesfaw G, Ayano G, Awoke T, Assefa D, Birhanu Z, Miheretie G et al (2016) Prevalence and correlates of depression and anxiety among patients with HIV on-follow up at Alert Hospital, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia BMC Psychiatry 16:368

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Scott-Sheldon LA, Kalichman SC, Carey MP, Fielder RL (2012) Stress management interventions for HIV+ adults: a metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials, 1989 to 2006. Heal Psychol 27(2):129–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Sherr L, Clucas C, Harding R, Sibley E, Catalan J (2011) HIV and depression–a systematic review of interventions. Psychol Heal Med 16(5):493–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sulyman D, Abiodun OA, Yussuf AD (2013) Detection of psychiatric disorders by physicians attending to people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in a Nigeria University Teaching Hospital. J Bio Agricu and Heal care 3:92–96

    Google Scholar 

  16. Schadé A, Grootheest G, Van G, Smit JH (2013) HIV-infected mental health patients : characteristics and comparison with HIV-infected patients from the general population and non-infected mental health patients. BMC Psychiatry 13(35):2–10

    Google Scholar 

  17. Shittu RO, Issa BA, Olanrewaju GT, Mahmoud AO, Odeigah LO et al (2013) Prevalence and correlates of depressive disorders among people living with hiv/aids, in North Central Nigeria. J AIDS Clin Res 4:251

    Google Scholar 

  18. L’akoa RM, Noubiap JJ, Fang Y, Ntone FE, Kuaban C (2013) Prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms in HIV-positive patients: a cross-sectional study among newly diagnosed patients in Yaoundé. Cameroon BMC Psychiatry 13:228

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Antelman G, Kaaya S, Wei R, Mbwambo J, Msamanga GI (2012) Depressive symptoms increase risk of HIV disease progression and mortality among women in Tanzania. J AIDS Clin Res 44(12):470–477

    Google Scholar 

  20. Deribew A, Tesfaye M, Hailmichael Y, Apers L, Abebe G (2011) Common mental disorders in TB/HIV co-infected patients in Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 10:201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Bhatia M, Munjal S (2014) Prevalence of depression in people living with HIV/AIDS undergoing ART and factors associated with it. J Clin Diagnosis Respir 8(10):1–3

    Google Scholar 

  22. Chorwe-sungani G, Sefasi A, Pindani M (2015) Mental health problems affecting people who have HIV and AIDS in Malawi : a review. Open J Nurs 5:189–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Charan J, Biswas T (2013) How to calculate sample size for different study designs in medical research? Indian J Psychol Med 35(2):121–126

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Sheehan D, Janavs J, Baker R, Sheehan KH, Knapp E, Sheehan M (1998) Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I), DSM-IV English Version, Vol. 5.0.0. University of South Florida - Tampa - USA. p. 1–26. Available at; https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=cd0609ea6d85ddaf335959cc96965f4fba452885pdf. Accessed 23 Feb 2019

  25. Lecrubier Y, Sheehan DV, Weiller E, Amorim P, Bonora I, Sheehan KH et al (1997) The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.), a short diagnostic interview : Reliability and validity according to the CIDI. Eur Psychiatry J 12:224–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, Amorim P, Janavs J, Weiller E et al (1998) The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.), : the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview. J Clin Psychiatry 59(20):22–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Otsubo T, Tanaka K, Koda R, Shinoda J, Sano N, Tanaka S et al (2005) Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci J 59(5):517–526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Pettersson A, Modin S, Wahlström R, Hammarberg W, Krakau I (2018) The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview is useful and well-accepted as part of the clinical assessment for depression and anxiety in primary care : a mixed-methods study. BMC Fam Pract 19(19):1–13

    Google Scholar 

  29. United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2019) Global HIV & AIDS Statistics - 2019 Fact Sheet. Available from: www.unaids.org. Accessed on 10th November 2019

  30. United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2019) HIV and AIDS in Nigeria. 1–17. Available from: www.avert.org. Accessed 7th August 2019

  31. United Nations on Accquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (UNAIDS) (2014) The Gap Report. 3–307. Available at www.unaids.org. Accessed on 2nd November 2019

  32. Adeoti AO, Dada MU, Fadare JO (2018) Medical reports and case studies prevalence of depression and anxiety disorders in people living with HIV/AIDS in a tertiary hospital in South Western Nigeria. Med Rep Case Stud 3(1):3–7

    Google Scholar 

  33. Mayston R, Patel V, Abas M, Korgaonkar P, Paranjape R, Rodrigues S et al (2015) Determinants of common mental disorder, alcohol use disorder and cognitive morbidity among people coming for HIV testing in Goa. India Trop Med Int Health 20(3):397–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12435

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Scully EP (2018) Sex Differences in HIV Infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 15:136–146

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Egbe CO, Dakum PS, Ekong E, Kohrt BA, Minto JG, Ticao CJ (2017) Depression, suicidality, and alcohol use disorder among people living with HIV / AIDS in Nigeria. BMC Public Health 17:17–542

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Marwick KFM, Kaaya SF (2011) Prevalence of depression and anxiety disorders in HIV-positive outpatients in rural Tanzania. AIDS Care 22(4):415–419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Balasubramaniam S, Pauldurai K, Eswaran M, Vethanayagam M, Rajagopalan R (2017) Prevalence and patterns of psychiatric morbidity in people living with HIV. Int J Research Med Sci 5(5):2011–2015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Valley K, Shrestha S, Poudel KC, Poudel-tandukar K, Kobayashi J, Pandey BD et al (2012) Perceived family support and depression among people living with HIV/AIDS in Kathmandul Valley Nepal. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care 0(0):1–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Zewdu S, Abebe N (2015) Common mental disorder among HIV infected individuals at comprehensive HIV care and treatment clinic of debre markos referral hospital. Ethiopia J AIDS Clin Res 6(2):420

    Google Scholar 

  40. World Health Organization and Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (2014) Social determinants of mental health. Geneva, Switzerland. Available at www.who.int. Accessed 5th April, 2019

  41. Olagunju AT, Adeyemi JD, Ogbolu RE, Campbell EA (2012) A study on epidemiological profile of anxiety disorders among people living with HIV/AIDS in a sub-Saharan Africa HIV clinic. AIDS Behav 16(8):2192–2197

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Farley J, Miller E, Zamani A, Tepper V, Morris C, Oyegunle M et al (2010) Screening for hazardous alcohol use and depressive symptomatology among HIV-infected patients in Nigeria: Prevalence, predictors, and association with adherence. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care 9(4):218–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Gebre B (2019) Factors associated with alcohol use disorder among people living with HIV/AIDS attending art clinic, Mizan Tep University Teaching Hospital, South West Ethiopia. HIV/AIDS - Res Palliat Care 2019:239–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. da Silva CM, Mendoza-Sassi RA, da Mota LD, Nader MM, de Martinez AMB (2017) Alcohol use disorders among people living with HIV/AIDS in Southern Brazil: Prevalence, risk factors and biological markers outcomes. BMC Infect Dis 17(1):1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Chinweokwu N, Onuoha F, Alabi A, Nwajei A, Owolabi A, Achigbu K et al (2018) The relationship between perceived family support and adherence to highly active anti-retroviral therapy among people living with the human immune-deficiency virus in a tertiary health facility in Nigeria. Int Res J Med Med Sci 6(3):79–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Bultum JA, Yigzaw N, Demeke W, Alemayehu M (2018) Alcohol use disorder and associated factors among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients attending antiretroviral therapy clinic at Bishoftu General Hospital, Oromiya region. Ethiopia PLoS One 13(3):1–12

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge all the consultants/trainers, the resident doctors of the Family Medicine Department UITH, and all the staff of the UITH HAART clinic for their support when we conducted this study. We also thank Dr. Ayodapo for the critical review of the manuscript.

Funding

The funding for this research was bear by the authors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Family Medicine Department, Federal Teaching Hospital, PMB 1126, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State, Nigeria

    AbdulRauf S. Ibraheem & Chinyere B. Nwosu

  2. Department of Family Medicine, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, PMB 5454, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria

    Louis O. Odeigah

  3. Department of Family Medicine, University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin, PMB 1459, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

    Ibrahim S. Kuranga & Ampitan Amoko

  4. Department of Family Medicine, Federal Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Budo-Egba, Kwara State, Nigeria

    Razaki K. Omowumi

  5. Department of Family Medicine, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University Teaching Hospital, Bauchi, Nigeria

    Afisulahi A. Maiyegun

  6. South Faisaliyah PHC and Trainer Saudi Board of Family Medicine, Arar, Saudi Arabia

    Abayomi O. Ayodapo

Authors
  1. AbdulRauf S. Ibraheem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Louis O. Odeigah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ibrahim S. Kuranga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ampitan Amoko
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Chinyere B. Nwosu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Razaki K. Omowumi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Afisulahi A. Maiyegun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Abayomi O. Ayodapo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

I.A.S; Conceptualization & study design, literature review, data collection, data analysis & interpretation, manuscript writing and manuscript revision. K.I.S; Conceptualization & study design, literature review, manuscript revision and final approval. O.L.O; Conceptualization & design of the study, manuscript revision and final approval. O.R.K; Data collection and analysis, manuscript revision and final approval. A.A; Conceptualization & design of the study, manuscript revision and final approval. N.B.C; Manuscript revision and final approval. M.A.A; Manuscript review and final approval. A.A.O; Literature review, manuscript writing, manuscript revision and final approval.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to AbdulRauf S. Ibraheem.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval to conduct the study was received from the Ethical Review Committee of the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital, Ilorin with approval number: UITH/CAT/189/19B/796.

Consent for publication

Consent to use and publish the data obtained from the participants was sought and the consent forms were signed.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ibraheem, A.S., Odeigah, L.O., Kuranga, I.S. et al. Prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities among adult out-patients living with HIV/AIDS in a tertiary care center, North-Central Nigeria: a cross-sectional study. Middle East Curr Psychiatry 31, 71 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-024-00461-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-024-00461-2

Keywords